The phrase 'statistical literacy' has been used for many years.  Here are some references to these uses in selected academic journals prior to 2002.   In 1992 Katherine Wallman (pictured above) wrote a paper, Enhancing Statistical Literacy: Enriching Our Society, that served as a starting point for a more focused emphasis on statistical literacy.   For additional history, see the Author page for Dennis Haack, author of "Statistical Literacy"

Articles that used "Statistical literacy" in the title.

• 1951: Statistical Literacy in the Social Sciences by Helen M. Walker. The American Statistician > Vol. 5, No. 1 (Feb., 1951), pp. 6-12. Excerpts: "definitions of verbal literacy may give us some useful clues as to the meaning of statistical literacy." "The ideas which the modern citizen must understand are becoming more complicated and many of them cannot be grasped without some degree of statistical as well as verbal literacy."  "In the same way that complete verbal illiteracy is a stone around a man's neck making it impossible for him to pursue a skilled trade or to rise to a position of leadership among his fellows, even so does complete statistical illiteracy hamper a man in many vocations, interfere with the wise conduct of many of his personal affairs and drastically curtail his understanding of social issues." "To a very striking degree our culture has become a statistical culture. Yet the level of statistical literacy among the practitioners of the social sciences is appallingly low. To bridge the gap in the system of communication between statistician and social scientist substantial improvement is necessary in the social scientists' ability to use quantitative language."  "One reason why the students of Social Studies do not make more rapid progress toward statistical literacy is that their statistical experiences are too largely limited to the courses in which they study statistics. They need to read more statistical material in their other courses." "The computational skills of our field [statistics] can be acquired in a fairly short time. Judgment, the ability to interpret, the clarification of concepts and the ability to plan a survey or an experiment are of slower growth.  Consequently the one-semester introductory course in which students learn a variety of computations will inevitably turn out a large number of semi-literates."  "Sometimes a reader's disability comes from carrying over into statistical reading the habits of very rapid skimming which he has found to be an asset in reading purely verbal material. Those of us who teach first courses in statistics may be able to suggest to our students that they learn how and when to change gears."

• 1979: Teaching Statistical Literacy by Dennis Haack, Teaching Statistics, 1, 74-76. Abstract: "More people have to read and understand others’ statistics than have to carry out their own statistical research. A first course in statistics should therefore concentrate on statistics as a language."  Extract: "A first course in statistics should teach statistics as a language rather than as a research tool.  Emphasis should be on interpreting statistics rather than on calculating statistics." 

• 1980: A Note on 'Teaching Statistical Literacy' by Dennis Haack, Teaching Statistics, 2, 22-23.   Abstract: "In his previous article Dennis Haack discussed the philosophy behind his course in teaching statistics as a language. Here he looks at some ways of assessing students taking such a course."

• 1981: Questioning strategies and sample problems for a course in statistical literacy by Eleanor Jordan, ASA Proceedings of the Section on Statistical Education, 103-108. 

• 1981: Teaching Statistical Literacy to Nurses by Dennis Haack.  ASA Proceedings of the Section on Statistical Education, 101-102.

• 1983: Statistical Literacy by Mike Perry, ASA Proceedings of the Section on Statistical Education, 92-96. 

• 1993: Enhancing Statistical Literacy: Enriching Our Society by Katherine K. Wallman. Journal of the American Statistical Association > Vol. 88, No. 421 (Mar., 1993), pp. 1-8. Excerpts [bold added]: P. 1, "my hope that by enhancing statistical literacy, we may succeed in enriching our society."  "My aims are ... to highlight some avenues we can pursue to enhance our citizens' statistical literacy."  "As I gathered and read materials on 'statistical literacy' from many sources, the diversity of views I encountered mirrored the breadth of perspectives our colleagues within and outside the statistics profession bring to this subject.  The perspective I offer is this: Statistical literacy is the ability to understand and critically evaluate statistical results that permeate our daily lives -- coupled with the ability to appreciate the contributions that statistical thinking can make in public and private, professional and personal decisions."  "These mis-es [misunderstandings, misperceptions, mistrust and misgivings], I contend, are rooted in society's lack of statistical literacy."  P. 3, "As a society we face many issues.  These ... difficult problems stand to benefit from the contributions that statisticians can make to our understanding, and from increased statistical literacy from both policy makers and the public."  "There are among those responsible for the education of our citizens many who fully understand the importance of promoting statistical literacy.  I think of Dean Hubbard, President of Northwestern State University, who is working to establish a "statistics for the common man" course as a requirement of the university's core undergraduate curriculum."  "The lack of statistical literacy extends as well to industrial settings."   P. 4, "Most vexing of all is the problem faced by our citizens, who encounter statistics at every turn in their daily lives, yet often are unequipped with the statistical literacy required to evaluate the situation."  "Numerous pathways, some already being traveled, others awaiting our footsteps, may be taken as we work both within the ASA and with colleagues in other disciplines and professions to enhance our citizens' statistical literacy."  P. 6, "To advance our citizens' statistical literacy, I would advocate further development of clear, simple, meaningful terminology and notation that could be promoted and used by our popular media in their reporting of statistical information."  P. 7., "Those of you who are out in the real world are in the best position to inform the fundamental question, "How can statistics be of use to our citizens?"   You will be the key to working with the popular media -- and thus enhancing our citizens' statistical literacy."  "A major theme of his address [Peter Moore's 1990 RSS Presidential address], as I read it, is that we must educate the consumer -- and the potential consumer -- to better understand statistics and more fundamentally [to understand] statistical thinking -- [and] to add statistical literacy to his or her skills. (Moore, 1990)"   "If we wish to continue to heed the mandate of our founders -- "to be of service to science and society" --  we must heed the needs of customers both in our professional society -- the ASA -- and in the larger society we seek to serve -- our customers in government and industry, whether they are on the front line or in the computer room; our customers in the education system, whether they are college presidents or classroom teachers or students; and our customers in the media, who most often bring our work to the ultimate customers -- our fellow citizens.  It is these audiences to whom we must bring statistical literacy -- and those audiences will determine whether statistical thinking makes a difference in their personal and professional pursuits."     P. 8, "As we endeavor to to enhance statistical literacy, I believe we will enrich both our professional society -- the American Statistical Association -- and the society in which we live."

• 1993: Improving Statistical Literacy among consultants and clients, Patricia Busk, ASA Proceedings Section Statistical Education, 239-246 [Disc: p. 254-257]
  1993: Comment on "Improving Statistical Literacy" by Juliet Shaffer, ASA Proceedings of the Section on Statistical Education, 254-257.
  1993: Statistical Literacy for whom: The case of the two-year colleges by Miriam Grosof and Hyman Sardy, ASA Proceedings of the Section on Statistical Education, 247-253. (Disc: p. 254-257).

• 1995: Statistical Tools and Statistical Literacy: The Case of the Average by Iddo Gal, Teaching Statistics,17, 97-99.

• 1997: The Need for Statistical Literacy in Australia  by Jane Watson Science News

• 1998: Statistical Literacy -- Statistics Long After School by Jerry Moreno, ICOTS-5.
  1998: Assessing statistical literacy through the use of media surveys  Jane Watson ICOTS-5
  1998: Statistical Literacy And Adolescent Risk by Jonathan Moritz, ICOTS-5.
  1998: Statistical Literacy For Law Students: Six Hours To Teach! by Anne Porter.  ICOTS-5.
  1998: Stumbling Blocks On The Road Towards Statistical Literacy by Herman Callaert.  ICOTS-5.
  1998: Statistical Literacy and Evidential Statistics by Milo Schield.  ASA Proceedings of the Section on Statistical Education, 187-192.

• 1999: Statistical literacy: Conceptual and instructional issues by Iddo Gal
  1999: Conceptualizing statistical literacy: An assessment perspective by Iddo Gal at SRTL-1.
  1999: Using Chance Media to promote Statistical Literacy by J. Laurie Snell, ASA.
  1999: The dissemination of statistical literacy among citizens and public administration directors by Luigi Biggeri and Alberto Zuliani.  ISI-52.

• 2000: Statistical literacy: Conceptual and instructional issues by Iddo Gal in D. Coben, J. O'Donoghue, & G. FitzSimons, (Eds.), Perspectives on Adults Learning Mathematics (pp. 135-150). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

• 2001: Statistical Literacy: Reading Tables of Rates and Percentages by Milo Schield. ASA Proceedings of the Section on Statistical Education, ??-??.
  2001: Statistical Literacy and Statistical Competence by David Moore, IASE slides
  2001: Statistics Literacy  by Brian Phillips, IASE slides

• 2002: Adults' Statistical literacy: Meaning, components, responsibilities by Iddo Gal, International Statistical Review 70(1), 1-25.
  2002: Developing statistical literacy: Towards implementing change by Iddo Gal. International Statistical Review, 70(1), 46-51.
  2002: Preparing for Diversity in Statistics Literacy: Institutional and Educational Implications by Scott Murray and Iddo Gal. ICOTS-6.
  2002: Towards a Statistically Literate Society: What Statistics Everyone Should Know by Jerry Moreno, ICOTS-6.
  2002: Promoting Statistical Literacy: A South African Perspective by P. Lehohla, ICOTS-6.
  2002: Three Kinds of Statistical Literacy: What Should We Teach? by Milo Schield, ICOTS-6.
  2002: Promoting Statistics Literacy: New Opportunities for the Training of Institutional Research Professionals by Linda Hewitt. ICOTS-6.
  2002: Statistical Literacy and the Media by W. Martin Podehl, ICOTS-6.

• 2003: Expanding conceptions of statistical literacy: An analysis of products from statistics agencies by Iddo Gal. Statistics Education Research Journal. 2(1), 3-22. (Electronic refereed journal: www.stat.auckland.ac.nz/serj)
  2003: Teaching for statistical literacy and services of statistics agencies by Iddo Gal, The American Statistician, 57(2), 80-84.

Articles that used "Statistical literacy" in the text but not in the title and not as a reference.

• 1940: Statistical Trends by William Fielding Ogburn.  Journal of the American Statistical Association > Vol. 35, No. 209, Part 2: [Proceedings of the Centenary Celebration] (Mar., 1940), pp. 252-260.  Excerpt: "In the early days when statistical literacy was low, those who could read and write this new language were set off and apart from the others.  They were labeled statisticians.  But now most any social scientist can compute a correlation coefficient and can read and write the statistical language to some extent.  Indeed, the arithmetics for eighth grade in the public schools now have sections on statistics.  So a degree of statistical literacy will be universal in the future since 100% of the children go to the elementary school and 65% to the high schools."

• 1962: Statistics We Live By by Martin R. Gainsbrugh. Journal of the American Statistical Association > Vol. 57, No. 297 (Mar., 1962), pp. 1-9.  Excerpts: "In our rush to develop and articulate the framework of economic intelligence, we have been too quick to assume a higher level of statistical literacy and of general public understanding than the facts warrant.  Many texts, perhaps too many, are now devoted to the fields of statistical techniques, sampling procedures and the impressive mathematical contributions of the last quarter century from which the statistician has so richly benefitted. Few, indeed, are the contributions dedicated to placing before the lay consumer the descriptive, qualitative, conceptual materials that are prerequisites to assure an adequate understanding of the statistics we live by."  "Even the sophisticated user of [economic and social] accounts knows there is no easy path through the jungle of descriptive literature in which are hidden the details on weighting, classification, conventions, imputations, and the myriad qualifications with which each key statistic is surrounded." "The data we compile has never been more universally followed than they now are.  Each of us can wrestle with his own conscience in replying to the inevitable corollary to such an observation: Are they better and more widely understood?"  

• 1962: Statistics in Army Research Development and Testing by Clifford J. Maloney.  The American Statistician > Vol. 16, No. 3 (Jun., 1962), pp. 13-17.  Excerpt: P. 14, "Primary responsibility for the adequacy of the Army's utilization of statistical principles rests with this group, but the task would be overwhelming in the absence of a high degree of 'statistical literacy' on the part of the R&D personnel whose specialties lie in other directions and on a corps of contractor personnel and part-time expert consultants -- usually academic."

• 1965: The Concept of Panchayati Raj and Its Institutional Implications in India by Iqbal Narain.   Asian Survey > Vol. 5, No. 9 (Sep., 1965), pp. 456-466.  Excerpt: P. 463, "Related to this [our professed goal of a socialist society] is the role education (as opposed to mere statistical literacy) is to play in enriching the content of rural democracy in participatory terms."  

• 1967: Subjective Aspects of Applied Statistics by A. F. Bissell.  The Statistician > Vol. 17, No. 4 (1967), pp. 385-400. Excerpts: P. 392, "One must avoid the allure of PIPE: Plausible, intuitive, and Probably Erroneous."  P. 396, "The results of an analysis may be misinterpreted by the client unless guidance is given....  There is probably no universal escape from this dilemma -- the solution must be adapted to the particular problem, and to the statistical literacy of the client."

• 1967: Ideologies and Attitudes, Academic and Judicial by Glendon Schubert.  The Journal of Politics > Vol. 29, No. 1 (Feb., 1967), pp. 3-40.  Excerpts: P. 11, "Academic ideologies tend to determine academic attitudes toward the study of judicial attitudes.  Attitudinal differences imply differing choices among such core components of academic attitudes as modes of discourse, logic, statistical literacy, rationality, empiricism, methodology and scientism."  P. 15, "Statistical literacy" -- the title of a section. 

• 1970: The Dimensions of Comparison, and of Comparative Education by Reginald Edwards.  Comparative Education Review > Vol. 14, No. 3, Papers and Proceedings: Annual Conference of the Comparative and International Education Society, Atlanta Georgia, March 22-24, 1970 (Oct., 1970), pp. 239-254.  Excerpt: P. 253, "In ... the training of educational researchers, D. R. Krathwohl has identified three dimensions, or axes, within which the position of any department of education research could be located.  ... the dimensions for our preparation would not be dissimilar.  The first axis would be mathematical/statistical literacy, the second would be social science background, and the third professional orientation.  The first would require more than just training in statistics. As well as an introduction based on probability theory, a knowledge of matrix algebra, and differential equations is necessary, and there should certainly be some contact with computer programming."

• 1987:  Buchanan and the Constitutional Bases of Political Decision Making by Vincent Ostrom.  PS > Vol. 20, No. 2 (Spring, 1987), pp. 242-246.  Excerpt: P. 245, "We might expect an increase in constitutional literacy to be accompanied by parallel developments in statistical literacy and mathematical literacy.  Constitutional literacy [the reason of rules accompanying the reason of law], if it is to have empirical referents and a computational logics with an empirical warrantability requires application to operational and collective-choice levels of analysis.  Mathematical literacy is important in establishing computational logics; statistical literacy is important in establishing empirical warrantability."

• 1988: What Should the Introductory Statistics Course Contain? by Gerald J. Hahn.  The College Mathematics Journal > Vol. 19, No. 1 (Jan., 1988), pp. 26-29. Excerpt: P. 20, "the general aim of an introductory course in statistics should be to provide some level of statistical literacy, and an appreciation of the role of uncertainty. It should enable students to apply statistical methods in order to obtain and evaluate their own data."  P. 28, "An integral part of the course should be a study: selected, designed, conducted and analyzed by each class member individually -- or in small groups. All this leaves little time for discussions of statistical inference and calculations around which many of our current courses are built (and which are regarded as boring by most non-statisticians)."  "When we do discuss specific inference methods, I strongly advocate interval estimation."  "We must make clear that statistical methods are based on mathematical theory.  Such theory must be part of the foundation in the training of a professional statistician, but it does not belong in a general introductory course."

• 1989: Graduate Statistics Service Courses in Part-Time Off-Campus Programs by Gabriella M. Belli; William L. Seaver. The American Statistician > Vol. 43, No. 2 (May, 1989), pp. 86-90. Excerpt: P. 89, "Recommendations about the need for better textbooks, for computer software that enhances statistical literacy, and for greater use of real data sets ..."

• 1990: ASA Celebrates Sesquicentennial by Gary G. Koch; Fred C. Leone; Robert L. Mason. The American Statistician > Vol. 44, No. 2 (May, 1990), pp. 113-115.  Excerpt: P. 114 "In a session, "A Conversation with Experts, Margaret E. Martin chaired a discussion on the successes and failures in that last 50 years with David R. Cox, W. Edwards Deming, Morris Hanson, C. R. Rao, and  John Tukey.  The successes sited included the increased use of statistical methods and the growth of training programs for statisticians from universities or continuing-education courses.  The primary failures discussed were the insufficient statistical literacy in the general public, and a lack of emphasis on practical problems by education programs in statistics."

• 1990: The Skills Challenge of the Nineties by Peter G. Moore.  Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (Statistics in Society) > Vol. 153, No. 3 (1990), pp. 265-285. Excerpts: "The basics of mathematics, of numeracy, and of what I would call statistical literacy are more easily absorbed by young children than by adults, and that will not change during a person's lifetime."  "What is needed is 'statistics across the curriculum' so that the art of drawing sensible conclusions from uncertain data can be a natural element of the education process."  

• 1990:  Biostatistical Collaboration in Medical Research by Jonas H. Ellenberg; Peter Armitage; Thomas C. Chalmers; Edmund A. Gehan; Judith R. O'Fallon; Stuart J. Pocock; Marvin Zelen.  Biometrics > Vol. 46, No. 1 (Mar., 1990), pp. 1-32.  Excerpt: P. 29, Rejoinder: The biostatistician must be able to deal with the possible confusion or suspicion created by these disagreements [involving medical scientists] in bringing statistical literacy to the public health arena."

• 1991: An Undergraduate Concentration in Applied Statistics for Mathematics Majors by Marie Gaudard; Gerald J. Hahn.  The American Statistician > Vol. 45, No. 2 (May, 1991), pp. 115-120.  Excerpt: P. 116, "The program [the proposed curriculum] should also help students which areas of application appear most attractive.  As indicated, some will be motivated to obtain more in-depth training later in their careers.  Others may eventually move away from statistics, perhaps into the application area itself.  These individuals will bring a high level of statistical literacy to their work."

• 1991: Improving Doctors' Understanding of Statistics by Douglas G. Altman; J. Martin Bland.  Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (Statistics in Society) > Vol. 154, No. 2 (1991), pp. 223-267.  Excerpt: P. 253, "All doctors need to acquire skills in the critical evaluation of the medical literature but a majority of medical graduates are not going to work in a research environment.  Some medical graduates will spend a period in research as an essential part of their career development.  A relatively small number of doctors will remain within the academic environment and will continue to pursue research throughout their career.  It is clear that the statistical literacy required by the three groups [of doctors] are different."

• 1993: Software Reviews by L. Carl Leinbach. The College Mathematics Journal > Vol. 24, No. 3 (May, 1993), pp. 263-270. Excerpt: P. 270, "America is not going to get  a quality education until its managers and workers have some grasp of probability and statistics.  -- the lingua franca of quality. Unfortunately, corporate statistical literacy is abysmally low."

• 1995: Qualitative Research in Applied Linguistics: A Progress Report by Anne Lazaraton.  TESOL Quarterly > Vol. 29, No. 3, Qualitative Research in ESOL (Autumn, 1995), pp. 455-472.  Excerpt: P. 456, "One broad-based survey of 121 applied linguists clearly acknowledged that 'qualitative approaches to data collection and analysis are clearly important for the types of questions asked in linguistic research', however the survey only assessed statistical literacy."

• 1996: A Look at the Literature (And Other Resources) on Teaching Statistics by Betsy Jane Becker. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics > Vol. 21, No. 1, Special Issue: Teaching Statistics (Spring, 1996), pp. 71-90. Excerpt: P. 71, Based on ERIC citations involving 'statistics', "There is little question that in many areas of academe statistical literacy is important."  The inclusion of standards for statistical literacy for the mathematics curricula in the NCTM standards has put the force of the main association for primary and secondary mathematics teachers behind the move to introduce statistics to lower grades."

• 1997: [Bayes for Beginners? Some Reasons to Hesitate]: Discussion by Thomas H. Short.  The American Statistician > Vol. 51, No. 3 (Aug., 1997), pp. 263-264.  Excerpt: 'Berry uses his consulting experiences to illustrate the applicability of Bayesian methods, and Albert incorporates examples from sports and student-generated data into his introductory courses.  Both provide a fundamental statistical literacy for their students."

• 1998: [A One-Semester, Laboratory-Based, Quality-Oriented Statistics Curriculum for Engineering Students]: Discussion by Veronica Czitrom.  The American Statistician > Vol. 52, No. 3 (Aug., 1998), p. 240.  Excerpt: "Craig Barrett, President of Intel, gave an invited presentation at the Joint Statistical Meetings several years ago.  H remarked that statistical literacy is a key to Intel's competitiveness, but that the courses engineers receive in college do not teach them the applied statistics they will need at Intel."

• 1998: Statistics among the Liberal Arts by David S. Moore. Journal of the American Statistical Association > Vol. 93, No. 444 (Dec., 1998), pp. 1253-1259.  Excerpt:  P. 1257, "Pinker gives an example that I will use to illustrate the fact that even the most basic aspects of statistical literacy require the regularity of a civilized environment."

• 1999: The Future Role of Statistics in Quality Engineering and Management by A. Bendell; J. Disney; C. McCollin.  The Statistician > Vol. 48, No. 3 (1999), pp. 299-326.  Excerpt:  P. 299, "Although statisticians are clear on the contributions their discipline has made historically in various aspects of industry and commerce, they continue to be concerned that the business world does not take statistical literacy or statisticians seriously enough."

• 2000: Applying Cognitive Theory to Statistics Instruction by Marsha C. Lovett; Joel B. Greenhouse.  The American Statistician > Vol. 54, No. 3 (Aug., 2000), pp. 196-206.  Excerpt: P. 203, "In the case of statistics education, the emphasis on the 'practice of statistics' can be seen through a number of different changes to course curricula. Course goals no longer refer to a student's ability to to derive particular statistical formula or to compute certain statistics by hand, but rather they refer to 'statistical literacy' and students' ability to reason statistically about real-world problems.  For example, the course called 'Chance' (Snell, 1996) builds its entire curriculum around statistical problems that arise as current issues in the media."

• 2000: Developing Concepts of Sampling by Jane M. Watson; Jonathan B. Moritz. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education > Vol. 31, No. 1 (Jan., 2000), pp. 44-70.  Excerpts: P. 44, Abstract: "Responses [to questions on sampling] were characterized in relation to the content, structure and objectives of statistical literacy."  "Another issue [in children's education] is associated with the goal of students' achieving, before they leave school, a level of statistical literacy that will allow them to contribute meaningfully to social decision making based on quantitative data."  Many other references.

Articles that used "Statistical literacy"  in just the title or in a reference.

• 1951: Recent Developments in Statistical Theory by Palmer O. Johnson; William J. Moonan.  Review of Educational Research > Vol. 21, No. 5, Methods of Research and Appraisal in Education (Dec., 1951), pp. 389-414.  Excerpt: P. 390, "Walker (203) contributed an interesting paper on statistical literacy in the social sciences."  P. 413, "(203)  Walker, Helen M., Statistical Literacy in the Social Sciences.  American Statistician, 5: 6-12; February, 1951."  

• 1982: Confidence in Confidence Intervals by Janet Bellcourt Pomeranz. Mathematics Magazine > Vol. 55, No. 1 (Jan., 1982), pp. 12-18. Excerpt: P. 18, Bibliography reference to Statistical Literacy by D. G. Haack. 

• 1987: A Bibliography on the Teaching of Probability and Statistics by S. Chandra Misra; Hardeo Sahai; Anil P. Gore; Joseph K. Garrett.  The American Statistician > Vol. 41, No. 4 (Nov., 1987), pp. 284-310.  Excerpt:  P. 294. References to Dennis Haack's two articles in Teaching Statistics.  P. 307, Reference to Helen Walker's 1951 paper on statistical literacy.

• 1992: Instructional Design and the Development of Statistical Literacy by Kenneth C. Bessant. Teaching Sociology > Vol. 20, No. 2 (Apr., 1992), pp. 143-149.  "Statistical literacy" is only used in the title -- not in the body of the article.  See JSTOR.

• 1998: The Beginning of Statistical Inference: Comparing Two Data Sets by Jane M. Watson; Jonathan B. Moritz.  Educational Studies in Mathematics > Vol. 37, No. 2 (1998), pp. 145-168.  Excerpt:  P, 167, Reference: Gal, Iddo (1997). 'Statistical Tools and Statistical Literacy: The Case of the Average'  Teaching Statistics 17, 97-99.

• 1998: Student Projects on Statistical Literacy and the Media by Andrew Gelman; Deborah Nolan; Anna Men; Steve Warmerdam; Michelle Bautista. The American Statistician > Vol. 52, No. 2 (May, 1998), pp. 160-166.  Excerpt:  P. 140, "For a general discussion of statistical literacy, see Bessant (1993) and Wallman (1992)." [Years should be reversed}